介紹
約翰·羅爾斯(John Bordley Rawls.1921年2月21日-2002年(壬午年)11月24日),美國(guó)政治哲學(xué)家、倫理學(xué)家。普林斯頓大學(xué)哲學(xué)博士,哈佛大學(xué)教授,寫過(guò)《正義論》(A Theory of Justice(1971))、《政治自由主義》、《作為公平的正義:正義新論》、《萬(wàn)民法》等名著,是20世紀(jì)英語(yǔ)世界最著名的政治哲學(xué)家之一。
20世紀(jì)70年代西方新自然法學(xué)派的主要代表之一,同時(shí)也是20世紀(jì)最偉大的哲學(xué)家之一。他培養(yǎng)的許多學(xué)生現(xiàn)今都成了道德和政治哲學(xué)的重要人物,如:納格爾(Thomas Nagel)和科恩(Joshua Cohen)等。
生平
出生于馬里蘭州的巴爾的摩,是家中五個(gè)孩子中的老二。二戰(zhàn)時(shí)入伍服役,后來(lái)拒絕升軍官的機(jī)會(huì)退伍回大學(xué)念書。1943年畢業(yè)于普林斯頓大學(xué),1950年獲該校博士學(xué)位。先后在普林斯頓大學(xué)、康奈爾大學(xué)、麻省理工學(xué)院和哈佛大學(xué)任教。盡管著作不多,但其在西方學(xué)術(shù)界影響甚大。
1951年發(fā)表《用于倫理學(xué)的一種決定程式的綱要》。此后他專注于社會(huì)正義問(wèn)題,并潛心構(gòu)筑一種理 性性質(zhì)的正義理論,陸續(xù)發(fā)表了《作為公正的正義》(1958)、《憲法的自由和正義的觀念》(1963)、《正義感》(1963)、《非暴力反抗的辯護(hù)》 (1966)、《分配的正義》(1967)、《分配的正義:一些補(bǔ)充》(1968)等文。
在此期間,羅爾斯著手撰寫《正義論》一書,前后三易其稿,終成20世紀(jì)下半葉倫理學(xué)、政治哲學(xué)領(lǐng)域最重要的理論著作,于1971年正式出版發(fā)行,旋即在學(xué)術(shù)界產(chǎn)生巨大反響。由于第一版的《正義論》封面為綠色,當(dāng)時(shí)一 些哈佛的學(xué)子以“綠魔”來(lái)形容這本書的影響力。據(jù)后來(lái)的統(tǒng)計(jì)數(shù)位顯示,自1971年,全球共有約5000余部論著專門對(duì)其研究討論。除此以外,羅爾斯的著 作還包括《政治自由主義》(1993)、《萬(wàn)民法》(1998)、《道德哲學(xué)講演錄》(2000)、《作為公平的正義——正義新論》(2001)等。
有的評(píng)論家把羅爾斯與柏拉圖、阿奎那和黑格爾這些思想泰斗相提并論。諾齊克當(dāng)年有言,政治哲學(xué)出了羅爾斯之后,你可以跟著他思考、可以針對(duì)他思考、可是不能不理會(huì)他而思考。羅爾斯政治哲學(xué)的特色,莫過(guò)于他對(duì)于「公平」意義下的「正義」這項(xiàng)政治價(jià)值的強(qiáng)調(diào)。此前的政治哲學(xué),往往局部強(qiáng)調(diào)自由、平等、幸福、效率等某一項(xiàng)價(jià)值。羅爾斯獨(dú)排眾議,認(rèn)為一個(gè)社會(huì)是否公平,乃是最根本的問(wèn)題所在。正因?yàn)楣绞巧鐣?huì)生活的最高價(jià)值,所以剝奪個(gè)人自由、歧視他人、以多數(shù)為名迫害少數(shù)、或者坐視個(gè)人之間的命運(yùn)差距,都違反了正義。
原則
對(duì)制度來(lái)說(shuō)的正義原則有二:①每個(gè)人都有權(quán)擁有與他人的自由并存的同樣的自由,包括公民的各種政治權(quán)利、財(cái)產(chǎn)權(quán)利。②對(duì)社會(huì)和經(jīng)濟(jì)的不平等應(yīng)作如下安排,即人們能合理地指望這種不平等對(duì)每個(gè)人有利,而且地位與官職對(duì)每個(gè)人開(kāi)放。對(duì)個(gè)人來(lái)說(shuō)的正義原則,首先也是公平的原則,即如果制度是正義的,個(gè)人自愿接受并能從中獲得利益,在這種情況下,個(gè)人就應(yīng)當(dāng)遵守這種制度。羅爾斯將法治稱為“形式正義”或“作為正規(guī)性的正義”,即對(duì)公共規(guī)則的正規(guī)的和公正的執(zhí)行。
法律正是對(duì)理性的人所發(fā)出的公共規(guī)則的強(qiáng)制命令,目的在于調(diào)節(jié)人們的行為,提供社會(huì)合作的結(jié)構(gòu)。而自由則是制度所規(guī)定的各種權(quán)利和義務(wù)的總和,所以法治和自由是相互聯(lián)系的,不能將法律看作是為爭(zhēng)奪權(quán)益而制定的產(chǎn)物,而應(yīng)將它看作是試圖實(shí)現(xiàn)正義原則而規(guī)定的最好的方針,具有道德的功能。70年代初,他的這種學(xué)說(shuō)在美國(guó)和其他西方國(guó)家法學(xué)界引起了強(qiáng)烈反響,被認(rèn)為在美國(guó)處于政治動(dòng)蕩的時(shí)刻,為自由主義的政治、法律思想提供了復(fù)興的希望。
正義論
在《正義論》問(wèn)世三十一年后,約翰·羅爾斯離開(kāi)了人世,停止了他對(duì)于公平的正義的思考。從各方面來(lái)說(shuō),羅爾斯的《正義論》及后續(xù)的《政治的自由主義》、《公平的正義再陳述》都屬于20世紀(jì)思想界最具有影響力的作品之列,其中理論貢獻(xiàn)最大、最具有原創(chuàng)性的當(dāng)屬《正義論》。在這些著作里,羅爾斯提出了一個(gè)融匯西方正義概念的基本涵義并又極大豐富了其內(nèi)涵的當(dāng)代社會(huì)正義理論,即公平的正義的理論。公平的正義在這些著作中被詮釋為在一個(gè)憲法民主制社會(huì)中人們關(guān)于一個(gè)健全的、持久的社會(huì)合作體系的條件的共同觀念,因而是一種內(nèi)含于關(guān)于一個(gè)健全持久的社會(huì)合作體系的觀念中的正義觀。總體地說(shuō),羅爾斯基于公平的正義觀念是在自由主義框架內(nèi)闡發(fā)的一種正義理論。但同時(shí),它也將社會(huì)主義的實(shí)質(zhì)平等觀念的某些要素納入了公平的正義的理論。在這個(gè)理論中,核心的概念是平等的自由。
羅爾斯最引以為傲的正義學(xué)說(shuō),是以洛克、盧梭和康德的社會(huì)契約論為基礎(chǔ),論證西方民主社會(huì)的道德價(jià)值,反對(duì)傳統(tǒng)的功利主義,認(rèn)為正義是社會(huì)制度的主要美德,就像真理對(duì)思想體系一樣;非正義的法律和制度,不論如何有效,也應(yīng)加以改造和清除。他還認(rèn)為正義與社會(huì)合作密切聯(lián)系,并指出應(yīng)當(dāng)區(qū)別對(duì)制度來(lái)說(shuō)的正義原則和對(duì)個(gè)人來(lái)說(shuō)的正義原則。
著作
A Theory of Justice. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1971. The revised edition of 1999 incorporates changes that Rawls made for translated editions of A Theory of Justice. Some Rawls scholars use the abbreviation TJ to refer to this work.
Political Liberalism. The John Dewey Essays in Philosophy, 4. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993. The hardback edition published in 1993 is not identical. The paperback adds a valuable new introduction and an essay titled "Reply to Habermas." Some Rawls scholars use the abbreviation PL to refer to this work.
The Law of Peoples: with "The Idea of Public Reason Revisited." Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999. This slim book includes two works; a further development of his essay entitled "The Law of Peoples" and another entitled "Public Reason Revisited", both published earlier in his career.
Collected Papers. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999. This collection of shorter papers was edited by Samuel Freeman.
Lectures on the History of Moral Philosophy. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2000. This collection of lectures was edited by Barbara Herman. It has an introduction on modern moral philosophy from 1600u20131800 and then lectures on Hume, Leibniz, Kant, and Hegel.
Justice as Fairness: A Restatement. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press, 2001. This shorter summary of the main arguments of Rawls’ political philosophy was edited by Erin Kelly. Many versions of this were circulated in typescript and much of the material was delivered by Rawls in lectures when he taught courses covering his own work at Harvard University.
Lectures on the History of Political Philosophy. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2007. Collection of lectures on Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Joseph Butler, J.J. Rousseau, David Hume, J.S. Mill, and Karl Marx, edited by Samuel Freeman.
A Brief Inquiry into the Meaning of Sin and Faith. Cambridge, Massachusetts, Harvard University Press, 2010. With introduction and commentary by Thomas Nagel, Joshua Cohen, and Robert Merrihew Adams. Senior thesis, Princeton, 1942. This volume includes a brief late essay by Rawls entitled On My Religion.
論文
"A Study in the Grounds of Ethical Knowledge: Considered with Reference to Judgments on the Moral Worth of Character." Ph.D. Dissertation, Princeton University, 1950.
"Outline of a Decision Procedure for Ethics." Philosophical Review (April 1951), 60 (2): 177-197.
"Two Concepts of Rules." Philosophical Review (January 1955), 64 (1):3-32.
"Justice as Fairness." Journal of Philosophy (October 24, 1957), 54 (22): 653-662.
"Justice as Fairness." Philosophical Review (April 1958), 67 (2): 164-194.
"The Sense of Justice." Philosophical Review (July 1963), 72 (3): 281-305.
"Constitutional Liberty and the Concept of Justice" Nomos VI (1963) (in the notes to the second volume of his Law, Legislation and Liberty, Hayek refers to this article to show that Rawls agreed with the Lockean conception that what could be just or unjust was the way competition was carried on, not its results)
"Distributive Justice: Some Addenda." Natural Law Forum (1968), 13: 51-71.
"Reply to Lyons and Teitelman." Journal of Philosophy (October 5, 1972), 69 (18): 556-557.
"Reply to Alexander and Musgrave." Quarterly Journal of Economics (November 1974), 88 (4): 633-655.
"Some Reasons for the Maximin Criterion." American Economic Review (May 1974), 64 (2): 141-146.
"Fairness to Goodness." Philosophical Review (October 1975), 84 (4): 536-554.
"The Independence of Moral Theory." Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association(November 1975), 48: 5-22.
"A Kantian Conception of Equality." Cambridge Review (February 1975), 96 (2225): 94-99.
"The Basic Structure as Subject." American Philosophical Quarterly (April 1977), 14 (2): 159-165.
"Kantian Constructivism in Moral Theory." Journal of Philosophy (September 1980), 77 (9): 515-572.
"Justice as Fairness: Political not Metaphysical." Philosophy & Public Affairs (Summer 1985), 14 (3): 223-251.
"The Idea of an Overlapping Consensus." Oxford Journal for Legal Studies (Spring 1987), 7 (1): 1-25.
"The Priority of Right and Ideas of the Good." Philosophy & Public Affairs (Fall 1988), 17 (4): 251-276.
"The Domain of the Political and Overlapping Consensus." New York University Law Review (May 1989), 64 (2): 233-255.
"Roderick Firth: His Life and Work." Philosophy and Phenomenological Research (March 1991), 51 (1): 109-118.
"The Law of Peoples." Critical Inquiry (Fall 1993), 20 (1): 36-68.
"Political Liberalism: Reply to Habermas." Journal of Philosophy (March 1995), 92 (3):132-180.
"The Idea of Public Reason Revisited," Chicago Law Review (1997), 64 (3): 765-807. [PRR]