在擔任教師的同時，昆體良還兼任律師，這使他有可能以當律師的豐富實踐經驗充實 教學內容，把理論與實踐緊密地結合起來。

　　昆體良退休后，專門從事著述。經過兩年多的努力，寫成了《雄辯術原理》（12卷，約合中文六十五萬字）。這部著作既是他自己約二十年教育教學工作經驗的總結，又是古代希臘、羅馬教育經驗的集大成者。昆體良的 教育理論和實踐都以培養(yǎng)雄辯家為宗旨。

　　文藝復興時期，久已失傳的昆體良的著作從積塵中被重新發(fā)現，立即光彩奪目，使厭倦了 經驗主義的 人文主義者為之傾倒。

　　昆體良（Marcus Fabius Quintilianus, 公元35~96 ）—— 古羅馬時期的著名律師、教育家和皇室委任的第一個修辭學教授

　　昆體良（公元35~96）生于西班牙北部，先在羅馬受教育，然后回西班牙當教師，西班牙籍的羅馬公民。公元68年應召到羅馬，由 羅馬皇帝授予他羅馬帝國第一個修辭學教授職位。由于在雄辯術方面的造詣以及在辦學上的卓越成就，當羅馬帝國在公元78年設立由國家支付薪金的雄辯術講座時，他成了該講座的第一位教師。昆體良在拉丁語修辭學校工作了二十年左右，大約在公元90年左右退休。在擔任教師的同時，昆體良還兼任律師，這使他有可能以當律師的豐富實踐經驗充實教學內容，把理論與實踐緊密地結合起來。昆體良退休后，專門從事著述。經過兩年多的努力，寫成了 《雄辯術原理》(12卷，約合中文六十五萬字)。這部著作既是他自己約二十年教育教學工作經驗的總結，又是古代希臘、羅馬教育經驗的集大成者。昆體良的教育理論和實踐都以培養(yǎng)雄辯家為宗旨。

　　《演說術原理》約成于公元96年，后失落。文藝復興時期，久已失傳的昆體良的著作從積塵中被重新發(fā)現（1416年重新發(fā)現《演說術原理》），立即光彩奪目，使人文主義者為之傾倒�！堆菡f術原理》一書是古代西方第一部系統(tǒng)的 教學方法論著。

　　昆體良在《演說術原理》一書中，不僅反映了公元前后二百年間羅馬學校教育的實際，而且系統(tǒng)地闡述了關于培養(yǎng)演說家的 教育思想。他與 西塞羅一樣，認為一個理想的演說家，首先必須是一個良善的人， 道德的生活比華麗的辭藻更重要得多。他對于教育事業(yè)懷有很大的信心，認為教育者應當看到兒童具有無限的潛在能力和發(fā)展的可能性，天賦的素質在學習上固然是重要的，但不能因此抱怨只有少數人有能力可以 接受教育，而多數人是遲鈍的；相反，大多數人是敏于理解和樂意學習的，那些呆笨的人如同不正常的事物一樣，是非常少的。他竭力主張并多方論證了公共教育比私人教育優(yōu)越的觀點。他要求未來的演說家必須生活在最公開的和 陽光普照的 公共生活之中，要善于與社會交往，從而經常受到新的刺激和鼓舞。在學習上，他認為作為一個演說家，必須有廣博的、穩(wěn)固的知識基礎。他特別強調文學教學（包括學習歷史家、科學家和詩人的著作）的重要性，他說：“除非很好地、真正地打好基礎，否則， 上層建筑就會倒塌�！�

　　昆體良的教育思想

　　昆體良看到并提出了過去一直被忽視的教師在 教學過程中的重大作用問題。他對兒童心理特點和教學方法進行了研究，認為教師必須以父母般的態(tài)度對待兒童，并徹底了解兒童能力的差異和傾向； 懲罰、 鞭打，乃至 嘲諷，只能使幼小的。心靈受到創(chuàng)傷。昆體良堅決反對體罰，認為這是對兒童的凌辱。他認為，用體罰的方法來驅使學生學習，不但不能調動學生學習的積極性和自覺性，相反卻會使學生產生厭學的情緒�！�

　　昆體良對兒童的天賦才能有很高評價，這是他教育理論體系中的精華。他肯定 兒童發(fā)展的可能性。指出兒童一般都生而具有智力活動與理解能力，愚純和低能只是一種反�，F象，是稀有的。他把 小學教育看作全部教育的基礎。他不贊成羅馬7歲入學的傳統(tǒng)習慣，主張兒童應提早入學，但學習不能負擔過重，教學中應多滲入游戲的成份。他相信游戲可以增強 兒童智慧，培養(yǎng)兒童的道德品格，不過不能讓 兒童游戲過度。主張 學校課程不宜單科獨進，而應該多科并進，對學生的精神是一種調劑，可以減輕疲勞，提高學習質量。他認為課程門類多，不致造成學生負擔過重，因為青年的接受性強，接受量大，而且在學校學習的時間長。

　　昆體良認為，教學質量的關鍵在于教師。他對教師提出了很高的要求。認為教師應該是有學識的，他們應該熱愛兒童，耐心地教育兒童，注意研究兒童，講究因材施教。他提出一個極有意義的愿望，要求高等學校的教師抽出一些時間到初等學校去授課，以便研究兒童、研究教育兒童的方法。他強烈反對當時流行于羅馬學校中的體罰，認為學生不學好，那是教育的過錯，應該用競賽、獎勵、教師的關懷愛護和學科本身所引起的興趣去保證學童學習好。教師的鼓勵和 榜樣是使學生學習成功的有效方法。

　　昆體良重視學生記憶能力的培養(yǎng)。他認為，“對于一個雄辯家來說，記憶力是頭等重要的，它可以通過練習來得到加強和發(fā)展”。 在兒童年齡很小時，就要讓他背誦許多優(yōu)美的詩文，雖然他們還不能理解，但到了兒童能夠理解時就會對他們大有稗益。在學校中，教師要有意識地培養(yǎng)和鍛煉兒童的記憶力，使其得到不斷地強化和充實。在昆體良看來，對于雄辯家的培養(yǎng)要"從咿呀學語開始，經過 初露頭角的雄辯家所必需的各個階段的教育，一直到雄辯術的頂峰。"

　　第一階段:家庭教育。昆體良非常重視幼兒教育。他認為，幼兒教育可以在德行和知識方面為雄辯家的培養(yǎng)打下初步的基礎。幼兒教育是在家庭里進行的，父母、保姆、 家庭教師都是幼兒的教育者。尤其強調保姆必須是一個具有良好的品德和說話準確的人，因為她們的一言一行都會影響幼兒。

　　第二階段:初級學校。昆體良反對 古代羅馬貴族聘請家庭教師的傳統(tǒng)做法，主張應盡早讓兒童接受學校教育。在他看來，家庭教育容易使孩子 養(yǎng)成冷淡、自夸和羞怯的習性，而學校教育則不同。學校里學生集中，不但有結交朋友的環(huán)境，而且也有競爭的、互相觀摩學習的機會，因此，從學樣培養(yǎng)出來的學生一般都能很快地勝任雄辯家的角色，在公眾面前發(fā)表演講。昆體良認為，在初級學校中，兒童主要學習閱讀和書寫。昆體良在總結自己長期的教學工作經驗基礎上，對 教學原則和方法等問題提出了自己獨到的見解。

　　昆體良倡導因材施教。他深信，每一個兒童都具有才能上的個別差異。在教學過程中，教師要"善于精細地觀察學生能力的差異，弄清每個學生的天性的特殊傾向";教師在識辨了學生的能力和個性以后，就必須因材施教。他主張按照每一個學生的具體情況安排課程。對于智力較弱的學生，在教學的進度和內容方面可以適當遷就一些;但對于天賦素質豐饒的學生則要盡力培養(yǎng)，便之成為真正的雄辯家。另外還提出，"對不同年齡的學生，糾正錯誤要用不同的方法。作業(yè)的分量和改正錯誤的標準應適合學生的智力水平。" 昆體良奠定了教學中量力性原則的思想基礎。他認為，教學中既要避免對學生提出過高要求，又不可讓學生放棄力所能及的嘗試。他曾再三告誡教師，要防止學生的課業(yè)負擔過重，教學的方式方法要為學生所接受，不要裝腔作勢，故弄玄虛。

　　INTRODUCTION—— LIFE OF QUINTILIAN

　　MARCUS FABIUS QUINTILIANUS was, like Seneca, of Spanish origin, being born about 35 A.D. at Calagurris. His father was a rhetorician of some note who practiced with success at Rome. It is not surprising therefore to find that the young Quintilian was sent to Rome for his education. Among his teachers were the famous grammaticus Remmius Palaemon, and the no less distinguished rhetorician Domitius Afer. On completing his education he seems to have re turned to his native land to teach rhetoric there, for we next hear of him as being brought to Rome in 68 A.D. by Galba, then governor of Hi spania Tarraconensis. At Rome he met with great success as a teacher and was the first rhetorician to set up a genuine public school and to receive a salary from the State. He continued to teach for twenty years and had among his pupils the younger Pliny and the two sons of Domitilla, the sister of Domitian. He was also a successful pleader in the courts as we gather from more than one pass age in his works. Late in life he married and had two sons. But both wife and children predeceased him. He died full of honour, the possessor of wide lands and consular rank. The date of his death is unknown, but it was before 100 A.D. He left behind him a treatise “On the causes of the decadence of Roman oratory ” (De causis corruptae eloquentiae), the present work, and a speech in defence of a certain Naevius Arpinianus, who was accused of murdering his wife. These are the only works known to have been actually published by him, though others of his speeches had been taken down in shorthand and circulated against his will, while an excess of zeal on the part of his pupils resulted in the unauthorized publication of two series of lecture notes. The present work alone survives. The declamations which have come down to us under his name are spurious. Of his character the Institution Oratorio gives us the pleasantest impression. Humane, kindly and of a deeply affectionate nature, gifted with a robust common sense and sound literary judgment, he may well have been the ideal schoolmaster. The fulsome references to Domitian are the only blemishes which mar this otherwise pleasing impression. And even here we must remember his great debt to the Flavian house and the genuine difficulty for a man in his position of avoiding the official style in speaking of the emperor. As a stylist, though he is often difficult owing to compression and the epigrammatic turn which he gives his phrases, he is never affected or extravagant. He is still under the influence of the sound traditions of the Ciceronian age, and his Latin is silver-gilt rather than silver. His Institutio Oratoria, despite the fact that much of it is highly technical, has still much that is of interest to-day, even for those who care little for the history of rhetoric. Notably in the first book his precepts as regards education have lasting value: they may not be strikingly original, but they are sound, humane and admirably put. In the more teclmical portions of his work he is unequal; the reader feels that he cares but little about the minute pedantries of rhetorical technique, and that he lacks method in his presentation of the varying views held by his predecessors. But once he is free of such minor details and touches on themes of real practical interest, he is a changed man. He is at times really eloquent, and always vigorous and sound, while throughout the whole work he keeps the same high ideal unswervingly before him.

　　arcus Fabius Quintilian was born in Calagurris, Spain in 35 A.D. with a roman rhetorician as a father. He was therefore sent to Rome where he was educated in rhetoric. After his education was complete, he returned to Spain and became a rhetorician of worthy note there. He later returned to Rome and began to teach. He published three works, of which only his Institutio Oratoria survived.

　　His Life

　　Quintilian was born in Calagurris, Spain in 35 A.D. to a roman rhetorician. His father took him to Rome to be educated in the art of rhetoric. While in Rome, Quintilian was educated by such rhetoricians as Remmius Palaemon, Domitius and Afer. After his education was complete, he returned to Spain to begin practice as a rhetorician. In 68 A.D. he was brought back to Rome and began to teach there. He became the first rhetorician to set up a truly public school, and to receive a state salary. He was also the only rhetorician to receive an imperial grant. As a teacher of rhetoric, Quintilian taught several people that were of some importance. These included the younger Pliney, the two sons of Domitilla, and the sister of Domitian. Quintilian taught rhetoric for twenty years before he retired at age 50. After finished with teaching, he was asked by several of his friends, mainly Trypho, to publish a book on rhetorical pedagogy. The book he wrote was Institutio Oritoria, and is the only work of his to survive to this day. He published only two other works, on being a speech in defense of a suspected murderer, and the other a treatise entitled "On the decadence of roman oratory."

　　His Ideals

　　Quintilian lived in the time period following Cicero, and was therefore influenced by him. Many of Quintilian’s ideals on rhetoric and rhetorical pedagogy are parallel to those of Cicero. These parallels were so close, that Quintilian was often called an imitator of Cicero. Cicero was also influenced by Isocrates, and therefore had ideals parallel to those of him, as did Quintilian. Quintilian believed that there was a level which a rhetorician could reach that he felt was perfect. He developed five main objectives that this rhetorician would have to follow to reach and maintain this level. These included protecting the innocent, defending the truth, deterring crime and criminal activities, inspiring the military, and in general, inspire the public. These ideals were what Quintilian felt every rhetorician should strive for to be a true rhetorician, a "good man skilled at speaking." Quintilian felt that teaching rhetoric had several steps that had to be followed in order. Included in these steps, is the progression from one form of communication to two. These methods are described in full detail in Quintilian’s Intitutio de Oratoria.

　　Institutio Oratoria

　　History

　　The Institutio Oratoria is Quintilian’s only surviving work. It is a collection of twelve books written on the education of rhetoricians from childhood to death. The work has a rich history both of its influence on others, and others’ influence on it. After it was published by Quintilian, it circulated sparingly, with little interest. Its influence finally disappeared around 800 A.D. It then reappears in the twelfth century, and becomes a strong influence in the middle ages before disappearing again in the mid 1100’s. Its influence on the education of this period was so strong, that it has been associated to the end of the medieval period. During this time the work was in several incomplete versions, resulting from changes made by many people over the span of centuries. The resulting versions discouraged people from reading the work, and gave Quintilian a marred reputation. During the Medieval period, the forms of Quintilian’s work that were available were the textus mutilatus (the text with big gaps), excerpts in florigalia (choice excerpts), Pseudo-Quintilian declamations, and rarely a complete text. In 1416, the complete text was re-discovered by Poggio at the St. Gall monastery. When he found the text, he quickly copied it, and brought it home with him. About forty copies of his original copies are still extant. The work became a strong influence again, and the demand for the work also grew strong. Between 1470 and 1539 forty-three versions were produced.

　　Content

　　The Institutio Oritoria was written on how a rhetorician should be educated. The first two books are devoted to discussing how children are started on the subject. Book three discusses the origin of the art, and its different branches, as well as the stasis theory. Book four describes the different parts of a speech, and book five discusses proofs and enthymemes. Book six studies the emotions involved with rhetoric, and book seven deals with arrangement. Books eight and nine concentrate on the various uses of style, and book ten describes reading and writing. Book eleven is written on memory and delivery, while the last book gives Quintilian’s views on what a perfect rhetorician is, and what happens when a rhetorician retires.